Strategies to Control Aggression in Coaches and Their Athletes.

Coaches & Aggression…

It is important for a coach to control their own aggression as well as their athletes'.

Rancer & Avtgis (2010) and Kerr (2005) both suggest the substantial role played by a coach in relation to aggression in sport. They continue that this is particularly evident when coaching youth sports as the coaches have a much greater influence over the young athletes. Weinberg & Gould (2007) agree with this suggesting the importance of coaches controlling aggressive behaviours in athletes. Ruggiero & Lattin (2008) propose that aggressive behaviour displayed by coaches can take the form of insulting players, attacking their self-concept, athletic skills, motivation levels and even questioning their commitment to their team. Ruggiero & Lattin (2008) continue that a common result is the threat by coaches of additional practice or workouts for the athletes, for example running extra laps or suicide runs.

Elite performers completing suicide runs.

Ruggiero & Lattin (2008) advise that the athletes largely found such threats to be non-motivational. Rancer & Avtgis (2010) support this research adding that coaches regularly attack the self-esteem or performance of an individual or repeatedly both. Rancer & Avtgis (2010) continue to suggest the common use of covert or discreet aggression often used by coaches demonstrated by specific and subtle messages to their participants. Kassing & Infante (1999) indicate that the use of physically or verbally aggressive tactics by coaches has a negative effect on the satisfaction of the athlete, the success of the team and the overall actions of sportsmanship behaviours by both individuals and the team. Rancer & Avtgis (2010) reinforce this concept introducing the knowledge that the athlete’s perception of the coach’s verbal aggression affects their behaviour in sport, in particular regarding fair play and sportsmanship. Overall Rancer & Avtgis (2010) propose that the way in which coaches communicate shape sport as an aggressive activity. Consequently, it is pivotal for a coach to control their aggression as it is often reflected in their athletes, either through their behaviour or beliefs or in their levels of motivation. As proposed in earlier posts, aggression in an athlete has a detrimental effect on their physical and mental performance.

A coach's aggression displayed when coaching is often reflected in the behaviour of their athletes.

It is also essential for an athlete to control their aggression.

Donahue et al. (2009) suggest that athletes are aggressive due to the pressure of failure. Donahue et al. (2009) continues that athletes perceive failure as a threat and are consequently more likely to be aggressive. Weinberg & Gould (2007) agree with this theory adding the explanation that aggression from athletes stems from the desire to win by all costs, even if this involves breaking rules or injuring an opponent. This could originate from the aggression displayed by coaches in the tutoring athletes experience at a younger age. However Jarvis (2006) points out that there is no clear link between aggression and success within sports. For this reason aggression in sport can be viewed as unnecessary. Gadsdon (2001) states that research by Silva (1979) suggests that those who exhibit hostile aggression have lower concentration levels and overall poorer performances than those who show no aggression. However Gadsdon (2001) also points out the lack of studies researching the link between aggression and sporting performance.

In certain sports, such as martial arts, points are awarded for aggression.

Strategies to reduce aggression in both coaches and athletes…

Jarvis (2006) suggests the use of punishment as a strategy to reduce aggression. Jarvis (2006) states that Bandura (1973) proposes that as part of social learning theory, athletes and coaches learn through punishment that the results of aggression are negative. Silva & Stevens (2002) support this adding that this needs to be done in the early years of learning to avoid positive reinforcement of aggressive behaviours. Jarvis (2006) continues that punishment can act as a deterrent, other individuals witnessing a player or coach being punished for an aggressive action learn that aggression leads to punishment. Silva & Stevens (2002) advise that the punishment needs to be prompt, severe and consistent for all athletes and coaches. Sporting examples of such punishments may be suspending an athlete from competition, coaches having to watch a match in the stands or fining or stopping pay for elite athletes or coaches.  

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zRtSzVJzUuE John Terry facing the punishment of being sent off for an aggressive act on an opponent. He was also suspended from the following match in the same competition.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p_HitwU_ZFY Arsenal manager Arsene Wenger also being punished for aggressive behaviour, he was made to sit in the stands for the remainder of this match.

Both the instinct and frustration-aggression theories of aggression support the role of catharsis as a strategy to reduce aggression. Jarvis (2006) suggests that the nature of sport is cathartic anyway therefore hard and frequent training sessions will lower aggression in athletes as it is released through catharsis. However Gill & Williams (2008) disagree on the effectiveness of catharsis stating that negative aspects include the short-term value of catharsis and the idea that it is less satisfying, therefore less cathartic, than an athlete aiming their aggression at the aggressive cue.

Clifford & Feezell (2010) suggest the importance of role models within sport. Jarvis (2006) agrees with this proposing the significant effect a role model such as a teacher or coach has on the use of aggression among their athletes. Jarvis (2006) continues that due to the explicit role the media plays in sport, it is very likely that children will at some point witness aggressive behaviours in elite sports from coaches and athletes. This can only be resolved by the removal of children from spectating; however Clifford & Feezell (2010) argue that this will have a negative impact on the children’s involvement in sport. A similar approach would entail the use of positive role models in elite sport and the removal of aggressive acts from the media spotlight.

 Jessica Ennis is an international role model and will have the responsibility of behaving accordingly in the 2012 London Olympics.

David Beckham is another international role model and his behaviour must reflect this.

Abrams (2010) suggests the use of contracting as a strategy to control aggression. Jarvis (2006) argues that this should be used only for persistently aggressive athletes and coaches. It involves the formation of a contract between an athlete or athletes and a coach or between a coach and a member of their club, to state what behaviours need to be eliminated and under what specific circumstances. Jarvis (2006) continues that this includes a punishment or a reward for the individual(s) for breaking or completing the contract.

In conclusion…

There are three different theories of aggression all with various supporting and critical research evidence. These theories differ based on the formation and creation of aggression and how it is eradicated. Overall an overwhelming amount of studies verify the link between high levels of uncontrolled aggression and the negative impact on both mental and physical performance. For this reason it is imperative, for coaches and athletes, to be able to manage their aggression when in varied sporting environments. As well as having an understanding of the theories of aggression, athletes and coaches need to identify the differences between hostile and instrumental aggression and aggression and assertion. As a result of the information provided in this blog I hope both coaches and athletes are able to use the knowledge supplied and the strategies to control aggression to be able to manage their aggressive behaviours and overall facilitate the progression and development into a better coach or athlete.