Theories of Aggression

The three theories of aggression...

Introduction…

I am a student currently on my first year of a degree in Sport and Exercise Coaching. As part of the principles of human behaviour module on this course I have the task of creating a coaching resource on a principle of my choice. Therefore I have established this blog on aggression in sports coaching. Throughout this blog I aim to provide an in depth and thorough coaching resource for anyone interested in aggression in sport. Through innovation, creativity and knowledge of the subject I hope this is of use to coaches and athletes who have difficulties controlling aggressive behaviours. By presenting the theory behind the principle of aggression, it will give a rudimentary understanding of the topic area to allow a comprehensive insight when exploring the strategies to control the aggressive behaviours. Firstly I will look at the three concepts of aggression, these are instinct theory, frustration-aggression theory and finally social learning theory, applying this in sporting situations, where applicable, to ensure a detailed, methodical understanding of the theories. I am then going to study the different types of aggression and the circumstances under which these are prevalent. These include the different types of aggression, in terms of hostile and instrumental aggression, based on the conditions in which the aggression is executed and the intention behind the aggressive act. Also taking into account the critical difference between aggression and assertion. After establishing why the need to control aggression is significant for both a coach and a performer I will look at well documented ways that have been suggested and researched to control aggressive behaviour.

Instinct Theory:

Weinberg & Gould (2007) and Jarvis (2006) propose the idea that the psychological instinct theory is a concept of aggression that is based on the genetic pre-disposition of athletes to exhibit aggression behaviour. Cox (1998) states that this theory was researched by Sigmund Freud (1950) who suggests that aggression is an innate behaviour, as opposed to a learnt behaviour, that is an instinctive drive essential for survival. Gadsdon (2001) introduces the idea of Freud’s theory and its popularity in the twentieth century. Gadsdon (2001) continues that Freud (1950) suggests the existence of a death instinct, Thanatos, which motivates people towards self-destruction. In conflict with this is the life instinct, Eros. As a result of the two conflicting instincts, the aggressive energy created needs to be resolved consequently it is turned outwards onto others. Gadsdon (2001) states that Freud’s research was supported by Lorenz (1974) who agreed that aggression was innate but argued that this is only triggered by specific environmental stimuli. Jarvis (2006) continues that aggression can be released through competing in sport as it is cathartic; therefore instinct theory states that aggression is reduced within society.

Frustration-aggression theory:

Frustration-aggression is another theory behind aggression. Kamlesh (2011) suggests that aggression is a general consequence of frustration. Sanderson (2010) suggests that in frustration-aggression theory all aggression is caused by frustration and all frustration leads to a craving to aggress. Sanderson (2010) continues that aggression caused by frustration leads to an aggressive desire towards the object of the frustration, in sporting terms this is often regarding other players, managers or officials. When the object of frustration is unavailable, any aggression is transferred to other available people or objects, this is known as displacement. Jarvis (2006) suggests that frustration builds up when a route to a goal is blocked. If catharsis does not occur then an overload of frustration leads to aggression. Kamlesh (2011) stresses that the frustration-aggression theory is down to environmental stimuli and for aggression to continually occur; cues that facilitate aggression must be present. An example of this theory is a football player who is repeatedly and unfairly being called offside by the officials. This is blocking the player’s route to goal, for the team to score a goal, resulting in frustration. If presented with an opportunity the frustration may lead to an aggressive act by the player to act as catharsis.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_fSr4f4Zkkg

This video shows an ice hockey brawl as an example of frustration leading to aggression in sport.

Social Learning Theory:

The final theory of aggression is social learning theory. Jarvis (2006) and Knutson (2009) state that Bandura (1973) proposes all behaviour is learnt through imitation and reinforcement. Sun (2008) states that social learning theory focuses on how an individual’s actions and behaviours are altered by the observation of another’s internal and external conditioning and reinforcement. Sun (2008) continues that Bandura (1973) argues the importance of vicarious experiences, witnessing other’s behaviours that are positively reinforced, that influence the aggression of an individual. Corey (2009) and Jarvis (2006) suggest that athletes can witness aggression at elite levels which are positively reinforced with praise or that go without negative punishment. Therefore these actions are likely to be emulated by the athlete in order to gain positive reinforcement. An example of this would be a child that witnesses an aggressive act in ice hockey that may lead to a team scoring or preventing the other team from doing so. This is positively reinforced by praise from team mates and cheering from the crowd. The child will then repeat this behaviour in order to gain similar positive reinforcement.

Aggressive behaviour in elite sport highlighted in the media.

Types of Aggression

Hostile vs. Instrumental Aggression:

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1CVVCaWj7gAC&pg=PA74&dq=hostile+aggression&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TMeXT4bQEPC10QWPkuCNBg&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false

This book contains more information if required.

The two types of aggression vary based on the nature of the aggression...

Russell (2008) proposes the theory that hostile aggression occurs spontaneously within the performer; this is the crucial difference to instrumental aggression. The idea of causing serious harm or injury to another athlete is constructed in a retaliation effect against someone who has provoked or aggravated the enforcer in some way. In sporting terms this could be a nasty or unnecessary challenge deemed acceptable by the officials, or unsportsmanlike conduct against the team or an individual within that team.  Kamlesh (2011) supports this theory suggesting than additionally hostile aggression can be intended to cause either psychological or physical harm to another. This type of aggression is often also called angry or reactive aggression.

Whether hostile or instrumental, aggression in sport can cause serious physical and psychological harm. At worst this can end careers of athletes.

Visek (2008) suggests that instrumental aggression can, by some performers, be seen as a means to an end. Russell (2008) supports this theory adding that instrumental aggression can be defined by the premeditation and forethought of an action with the intention of causing harm in search of a non-aggressive goal such as scoring or preventing the other team from scoring. An example of this is the guard's and tackler's roles in American football whose job it is to block the offensive team’s players by any means possible. Aggression is planned as each squad member is given their position pre-match. The aggression occurs by blocking the other team’s players however the intention here is to score a touchdown or prevent the other team from doing so. Kamlesh (2011) adds that reinforcement of the aggression is the achievement of the subsequent goal which is usually winning the competition. In the American football example, the reinforcement would be scoring or preventing the other team from scoring.

American football positions showing the guards and tacklers on each team, roles within the team designed to stop opposing players.

Assertion vs. Aggression:

There are two distinct sorts of aggression…

Weinberg & Gould (2007) emphasise the idea that although aggression is a blatant physical or verbal action against another person or object, this does not reflect the emotions, beliefs or attitude of the enforcer of the aggression. A sporting example is that although a football player may tackle and injure another player, whether hostile or instrumental, this does not imply the feelings of the enforcer towards the opponent. However aggression is intended to psychologically, through intimidation, or physically harm or cause injury to another person or object. Within aggression, Visek (2008) suggests the non-accidental nature and premeditation required designed to inflict pain or injury. This intention to cause injury as a result of aggression is related to the spontaneous, harmful description of hostile aggression.

A well documented example of pure aggression in sport, when Mike Tyson bit a chunk out of Evander Holyfield's ear during a boxing match on 28th June 1997. You can watch the full video on... http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2xKgaxcgU8I



Assertion links closely to instrumental aggression yet still varies enormously, Visek (2008) stresses that assertion is directed towards a goal that often requires justifiable physical and/or verbal force. A crucial understanding of assertion is that the intention is to make a point without the result being injury or harm to anyone or anything. Visek (2008) continues that assertion within sport is often carried out within the rules of the game and is orientated towards a specific task, usually winning a match. A sporting example of assertion is the game of Rugby. The task-orientated goal is winning a particular match or league; it is a contact sport yet without the general intention or premeditation of the players to injure opponents. Hickley (2006) suggests the disciplinary role of the officials within a game of Rugby League, any tackles made in an aggressive way with the intention of harming other players’ may result in the enforcer being dismissed from the field. After the game this may be followed up by a suspension or fine.

A red card in a Rugby match after a player has injured an opponent.

Silva (1978) advises that when playing sports, particularly collision or contact sports, assertion can often be mistaken for aggression. However the distinction between assertion and aggression is understandably very hard to provide support for.

Strategies to Control Aggression in Coaches and Their Athletes.

Coaches & Aggression…

It is important for a coach to control their own aggression as well as their athletes'.

Rancer & Avtgis (2010) and Kerr (2005) both suggest the substantial role played by a coach in relation to aggression in sport. They continue that this is particularly evident when coaching youth sports as the coaches have a much greater influence over the young athletes. Weinberg & Gould (2007) agree with this suggesting the importance of coaches controlling aggressive behaviours in athletes. Ruggiero & Lattin (2008) propose that aggressive behaviour displayed by coaches can take the form of insulting players, attacking their self-concept, athletic skills, motivation levels and even questioning their commitment to their team. Ruggiero & Lattin (2008) continue that a common result is the threat by coaches of additional practice or workouts for the athletes, for example running extra laps or suicide runs.

Elite performers completing suicide runs.

Ruggiero & Lattin (2008) advise that the athletes largely found such threats to be non-motivational. Rancer & Avtgis (2010) support this research adding that coaches regularly attack the self-esteem or performance of an individual or repeatedly both. Rancer & Avtgis (2010) continue to suggest the common use of covert or discreet aggression often used by coaches demonstrated by specific and subtle messages to their participants. Kassing & Infante (1999) indicate that the use of physically or verbally aggressive tactics by coaches has a negative effect on the satisfaction of the athlete, the success of the team and the overall actions of sportsmanship behaviours by both individuals and the team. Rancer & Avtgis (2010) reinforce this concept introducing the knowledge that the athlete’s perception of the coach’s verbal aggression affects their behaviour in sport, in particular regarding fair play and sportsmanship. Overall Rancer & Avtgis (2010) propose that the way in which coaches communicate shape sport as an aggressive activity. Consequently, it is pivotal for a coach to control their aggression as it is often reflected in their athletes, either through their behaviour or beliefs or in their levels of motivation. As proposed in earlier posts, aggression in an athlete has a detrimental effect on their physical and mental performance.

A coach's aggression displayed when coaching is often reflected in the behaviour of their athletes.

It is also essential for an athlete to control their aggression.

Donahue et al. (2009) suggest that athletes are aggressive due to the pressure of failure. Donahue et al. (2009) continues that athletes perceive failure as a threat and are consequently more likely to be aggressive. Weinberg & Gould (2007) agree with this theory adding the explanation that aggression from athletes stems from the desire to win by all costs, even if this involves breaking rules or injuring an opponent. This could originate from the aggression displayed by coaches in the tutoring athletes experience at a younger age. However Jarvis (2006) points out that there is no clear link between aggression and success within sports. For this reason aggression in sport can be viewed as unnecessary. Gadsdon (2001) states that research by Silva (1979) suggests that those who exhibit hostile aggression have lower concentration levels and overall poorer performances than those who show no aggression. However Gadsdon (2001) also points out the lack of studies researching the link between aggression and sporting performance.

In certain sports, such as martial arts, points are awarded for aggression.

Strategies to reduce aggression in both coaches and athletes…

Jarvis (2006) suggests the use of punishment as a strategy to reduce aggression. Jarvis (2006) states that Bandura (1973) proposes that as part of social learning theory, athletes and coaches learn through punishment that the results of aggression are negative. Silva & Stevens (2002) support this adding that this needs to be done in the early years of learning to avoid positive reinforcement of aggressive behaviours. Jarvis (2006) continues that punishment can act as a deterrent, other individuals witnessing a player or coach being punished for an aggressive action learn that aggression leads to punishment. Silva & Stevens (2002) advise that the punishment needs to be prompt, severe and consistent for all athletes and coaches. Sporting examples of such punishments may be suspending an athlete from competition, coaches having to watch a match in the stands or fining or stopping pay for elite athletes or coaches.  

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zRtSzVJzUuE John Terry facing the punishment of being sent off for an aggressive act on an opponent. He was also suspended from the following match in the same competition.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p_HitwU_ZFY Arsenal manager Arsene Wenger also being punished for aggressive behaviour, he was made to sit in the stands for the remainder of this match.

Both the instinct and frustration-aggression theories of aggression support the role of catharsis as a strategy to reduce aggression. Jarvis (2006) suggests that the nature of sport is cathartic anyway therefore hard and frequent training sessions will lower aggression in athletes as it is released through catharsis. However Gill & Williams (2008) disagree on the effectiveness of catharsis stating that negative aspects include the short-term value of catharsis and the idea that it is less satisfying, therefore less cathartic, than an athlete aiming their aggression at the aggressive cue.

Clifford & Feezell (2010) suggest the importance of role models within sport. Jarvis (2006) agrees with this proposing the significant effect a role model such as a teacher or coach has on the use of aggression among their athletes. Jarvis (2006) continues that due to the explicit role the media plays in sport, it is very likely that children will at some point witness aggressive behaviours in elite sports from coaches and athletes. This can only be resolved by the removal of children from spectating; however Clifford & Feezell (2010) argue that this will have a negative impact on the children’s involvement in sport. A similar approach would entail the use of positive role models in elite sport and the removal of aggressive acts from the media spotlight.

 Jessica Ennis is an international role model and will have the responsibility of behaving accordingly in the 2012 London Olympics.

David Beckham is another international role model and his behaviour must reflect this.

Abrams (2010) suggests the use of contracting as a strategy to control aggression. Jarvis (2006) argues that this should be used only for persistently aggressive athletes and coaches. It involves the formation of a contract between an athlete or athletes and a coach or between a coach and a member of their club, to state what behaviours need to be eliminated and under what specific circumstances. Jarvis (2006) continues that this includes a punishment or a reward for the individual(s) for breaking or completing the contract.

In conclusion…

There are three different theories of aggression all with various supporting and critical research evidence. These theories differ based on the formation and creation of aggression and how it is eradicated. Overall an overwhelming amount of studies verify the link between high levels of uncontrolled aggression and the negative impact on both mental and physical performance. For this reason it is imperative, for coaches and athletes, to be able to manage their aggression when in varied sporting environments. As well as having an understanding of the theories of aggression, athletes and coaches need to identify the differences between hostile and instrumental aggression and aggression and assertion. As a result of the information provided in this blog I hope both coaches and athletes are able to use the knowledge supplied and the strategies to control aggression to be able to manage their aggressive behaviours and overall facilitate the progression and development into a better coach or athlete.

Reference List

A full list of reference material used to construct this blog.


Abrams, M. (2010) Anger Management in Sport: Understanding and Controlling Violence in Athletes, Champaign IL: Human Kinetics.

Clifford, C, Feezell, R, M. (2010) Sport and Character: Reclaiming the Principles of Sportsmanship, Page 105, Champaign IL: Human Kinetics.

Corey, J. (2009) A Concurrent Validation of the Violence Sensitivity Scale, Ann Arbour MI: ProQuest.

Cox, R, H. (1998) Sports Psychology: Concepts and Applications, Boston MA: WCB/McGraw-Hill.

David Beckham LA Galaxy Herbalife (2012) JPEG, http://explosivemlm.com/herbalife-mlm-companies/lagalaxy-herbalife-news/attachment/beckham1rex_468x592-2/, 30^th April 2012.

Donahue, E, G. Rip, B, Vallerand, R, J. (2009) When Winning is Everything: On Passion, Identity, and Aggression in Sport, Vol 10, Pages 526-534, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Pennsylvania PA: Elsevier.

England's Six Nations success a result of intensive conditioning from fitness coach Paul Stridgeon. (2012) JPEG, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/rugbyunion/international/england /9157938/Englands-Six-Nations-success-a-result-of-intensive-conditioning-from-fitness-coach-Paul-Stridgeon.html, 28^th April 2012.

Gadsdon, S. (2001) Psychology and Sport, Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers.

Gill, D, Williams, L. (2008) Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, 3^rd Edition, Champaign IL: Human Kinetics.

Hickley, J. (2006) Understanding Rugby League, Leeds: Coachwise Ltd.

Jarvis, M. (2006) Sport Psychology: A Student’s Handbook, Vol 10, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.

Jessica Ennis turns to Cathy Freeman for help in coping with the weight of home crowd expectation at London 2012. (2010) JPEG, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/ othersports/article-1256045/Jessica-Ennis-turns-Cathy-Freeman-help-coping-weight-home-crowd-expectation-London-2012.html, 30^th April 2012.

Kamlesh, M, L. (2011) Psychology in Physical Education and Sport, New Delhi: Khel Sahitya Kendra.

Kassing, J, W, Infante, D, A. (1999) Aggressive communication in the coach‐athlete relationship, 16 (2), Communication Research Reports, Hampshire: Taylor & Francis.

Kerr, J, H. (2005) Rethinking Aggression and Violence in Sport, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.

Knutson, J, F. (2009) (Editor) The Control of Aggression: Implications From Basic Research, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.

LeUnes, A. (2008) Sport Psychology, 4^th Edition, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.

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Rancer, A, S, Avtgis, T, A. (2010) (Editor) Arguments, Aggression, and Conflict: New in Theory and Research, Page 255, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.

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Ruggiero, T, Lattin, K. (2008) Intercollegiate Female Coaches’ Use of Verbally Aggressive Communication Toward African American Women Athletes, Pages 105-124, 19 (2), The Howard Journal of Communications: Taylor & Francis.

Russell, G, W. (2008) Aggression in the Sports World: A Social Psychological Perspective, Page 4, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc.

Sanderson, C, A. (2010) Social Psychology, Page 386, Hoboken NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Silva, J, M, Stevens, D, E. (2002) Psychological Foundations of Sport, Needham Heights MA: Allyn and Bacon.

So You Want To Be a Football Coach? Just How Easy is it. (2010) JPEG, http://www. theuksportsnetwork .com /so-you-want-to-be-a-football-coach-just-how-easy-is-it, 28^th April 2012.

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Sun, K. (2008) Correctional Counseling: A Cognitive Growth Perspective, Page 79, Sudbury MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, LLC. 

Tyson Bites Holyfield’s Ear. (2011) JPEG, http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-09-13/mike-tyson-bites-evander-holyfield27s-ear/2896986, 26^th April 2012.

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Visek, A, J. (2008) Athletic Identity and Aggressive Behaviour: A Cross-cultural Analysis in Contact and Collision Sports, Page 78, Ann Arbour MI: ProQuest.

Weinberg, R, S, Gould, D. (2007) Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4^th Edition, Champaign IL: Human Kinetics.