Hostile vs. Instrumental Aggression:
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The two types of aggression vary based on the nature of the aggression...
Russell (2008) proposes the theory that hostile aggression occurs spontaneously within the performer; this is the crucial difference to instrumental aggression. The idea of causing serious harm or injury to another athlete is constructed in a retaliation effect against someone who has provoked or aggravated the enforcer in some way. In sporting terms this could be a nasty or unnecessary challenge deemed acceptable by the officials, or unsportsmanlike conduct against the team or an individual within that team. Kamlesh (2011) supports this theory suggesting than additionally hostile aggression can be intended to cause either psychological or physical harm to another. This type of aggression is often also called angry or reactive aggression.
Whether hostile or instrumental, aggression in sport can cause serious physical and psychological harm. At worst this can end careers of athletes.
Visek (2008) suggests that instrumental aggression can, by some performers, be seen as a means to an end. Russell (2008) supports this theory adding that instrumental aggression can be defined by the premeditation and forethought of an action with the intention of causing harm in search of a non-aggressive goal such as scoring or preventing the other team from scoring. An example of this is the guard's and tackler's roles in American football whose job it is to block the offensive team’s players by any means possible. Aggression is planned as each squad member is given their position pre-match. The aggression occurs by blocking the other team’s players however the intention here is to score a touchdown or prevent the other team from doing so. Kamlesh (2011) adds that reinforcement of the aggression is the achievement of the subsequent goal which is usually winning the competition. In the American football example, the reinforcement would be scoring or preventing the other team from scoring.
American football positions showing the guards and tacklers on each team, roles within the team designed to stop opposing players.
Assertion vs. Aggression:
There are two distinct sorts of aggression…
Weinberg & Gould (2007) emphasise the idea that although aggression is a blatant physical or verbal action against another person or object, this does not reflect the emotions, beliefs or attitude of the enforcer of the aggression. A sporting example is that although a football player may tackle and injure another player, whether hostile or instrumental, this does not imply the feelings of the enforcer towards the opponent. However aggression is intended to psychologically, through intimidation, or physically harm or cause injury to another person or object. Within aggression, Visek (2008) suggests the non-accidental nature and premeditation required designed to inflict pain or injury. This intention to cause injury as a result of aggression is related to the spontaneous, harmful description of hostile aggression.
A well documented example of pure aggression in sport, when Mike Tyson bit a chunk out of Evander Holyfield's ear during a boxing match on 28th June 1997. You can watch the full video on... http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2xKgaxcgU8I
Assertion links closely to instrumental aggression yet still varies enormously, Visek (2008) stresses that assertion is directed towards a goal that often requires justifiable physical and/or verbal force. A crucial understanding of assertion is that the intention is to make a point without the result being injury or harm to anyone or anything. Visek (2008) continues that assertion within sport is often carried out within the rules of the game and is orientated towards a specific task, usually winning a match. A sporting example of assertion is the game of Rugby. The task-orientated goal is winning a particular match or league; it is a contact sport yet without the general intention or premeditation of the players to injure opponents. Hickley (2006) suggests the disciplinary role of the officials within a game of Rugby League, any tackles made in an aggressive way with the intention of harming other players’ may result in the enforcer being dismissed from the field. After the game this may be followed up by a suspension or fine.
A red card in a Rugby match after a player has injured an opponent.
Silva (1978) advises that when playing sports, particularly collision or contact sports, assertion can often be mistaken for aggression. However the distinction between assertion and aggression is understandably very hard to provide support for.
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